seamus dubhghaill

Promoting Irish Culture and History from Little Rock, Arkansas, USA

Category Archives: Protestant Ascendancy (1691-1800)


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Passage & Royal Assent of the Toleration Act 1719

The Toleration Act 1719 (formally An Act for exempting the Protestant Dissenters of this kingdom from certain penalties, to which they are now subject) is passed by the Parliament of Ireland on November 2, 1719, and receives royal assent the same day. It is a landmark piece of legislation that grants limited religious freedoms to Protestant dissenters, primarily Presbyterians, but also including Quakers, Baptists, and other nonconformists.

The Act is enacted during the reign of King George I, amid the consolidation of Whig influence after the Hanoverian succession. It addresses long-standing grievances of Irish Dissenters, whose position has been precarious despite the English Toleration Act 1688, which does not fully protect them in Ireland due to the dominance of the Anglican Church in Dublin’s parliament.

Proponents, especially Presbyterians in Ulster, seek to depenalize nonconformist worship and education. The Act is also framed as a measure to bolster Protestant unity against the Catholic population, which remains subject to severe penal laws.

Key provisions of the Act include:

  • Exemption from certain penalties: Dissenters are relieved of punitive obligations to attend Anglican services or adhere to established church rituals.
  • Freedom of worship: Dissenters can maintain separate places of worship without fear of prosecution for nonconformity.
  • Education rights: The Act allows Dissenters to establish and staff schools, though it does not grant full civil equality.
  • Limitations: Nonconformists remain barred from holding public offices, corporations, and universities due to the sacramental test.

The Toleration Act marks a pivotal step toward depenalizing nonconformist worship in Ireland. It facilitates the growth of Presbyterian institutions in Ulster, contributing to the province’s economic and cultural distinctiveness. However, it does not resolve deeper tensions within the Protestant establishment, where concessions to Dissenters are seen by some as undermining ecclesiastical authority.

The Act is repealed in parts. The whole Act (except sections 4–8 and 14–16) is repealed by the Promissory Oaths Act 1871 (July 13, 1871). Section 8 is repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1950 (May 23, 1950).

In summary, the Toleration Act 1719 is a partial but significant liberalization of religious law in Ireland, offering Protestant dissenters practical freedom of worship and education while preserving many restrictions. It reflects both genuine religious reform and political strategy in the early 18th century, shaping Protestant–Catholic relations and the development of dissenting communities in Ireland.


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The 1794 Kerry By‑Election Duel

On October 20, 1794, during a by‑election for the County Kerry seat in the Irish House of Commons, John Gustavus Crosbie — a colonel in the 22nd Foot and High Sheriff of Kerry — takes offence at remarks made by the sitting MP, Sir Barry Denny, 2nd Baronet.

Denny, who has recently inherited his father’s seat, has publicly promised to remain neutral between the rival candidates, including Crosbie and Colonel Henry Arthur Herbert. Crosbie believes one of Denny’s comments — whether real or perceived — breaches this neutrality, and he issues a formal challenge.

The confrontation culminates in a duel at Oak Park, Tralee. Crosbie, taking careful aim, shoots Sir Barry Denny through the head, killing him instantly. At the time, killing in such disputes is considered an affair of honour, though legally it is premeditated murder.

The killing shocks the political and social elite of County Kerry. Denny is about to be raised to the Peerage of Ireland as Baron Denmore when he dies. The feud between the Crosbie and Denny families is bitter and long‑lasting, lasting for generations.

Crosbie is returned as MP for Kerry following the by‑election, but he dies suddenly on July 6, 1797 after falling from his horse. Local tradition holds that he was poisoned by the Denny family in revenge for the duel.

This incident remains one of the most notorious episodes in 18th‑century Irish political history, illustrating the intense personal rivalries and honour‑driven violence that often accompanied parliamentary contests in Ireland at the time.


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Grattan’s Motion Calling for Catholic Emancipation is Defeated

On October 17, 1796, in the Irish House of Commons, Henry Grattan tables a motion calling for Catholic emancipation — the right of Roman Catholics to sit in Parliament — but it is defeated.

Grattan, a leading Irish Whig MP and a key figure in the Irish Parliament’s push for greater autonomy from Britain, has long advocated for reform of the penal laws that exclude Catholics from political life. His motion seeks to remove the legal barriers preventing Catholics from being elected to Parliament, a move that would significantly alter the balance of power in Ireland.

The defeat reflects the deeply entrenched Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland, where Catholic emancipation is seen by many as a threat to the existing social and political order. The British government, under Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger, is also wary of Catholic political rights, fearing unrest and challenges to Protestant dominance.

Although the motion fails, it is part of a broader wave of reformist debate in the late 18th century. Grattan’s efforts lay the groundwork for later Catholic emancipation campaigns, culminating in the Roman Catholic Relief Act of 1829, which finally allows Catholics to sit in Parliament.

The debate is documented in the Report of Debates in the House of Commons of Ireland, session 1796–7, which records Grattan’s motion alongside other contentious issues of the time, such as the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act and disarming Ulster.

In summary, on October 17, 1796, Henry Grattan’s Catholic emancipation motion is defeated in the Irish House of Commons, underscoring the resistance to Catholic political rights in Ireland at the time, but also marking an early step in the long struggle for reform.


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Earl of Tyrone’s Spirit Reportedly Appears to Lady Nicola Sophia Hamilton

John Power, 2nd Earl of Tyrone, dies on October 14, 1693. Shortly afterward his spirit reportedly appears to Lady Nicola Sophia Hamilton, widow of Sir Tristram Beresford, 3rd Baronet. The tale is one of Ireland’s most famous ghost stories, recorded in the 1700s by Lady Betty Cobbe, granddaughter of Lady Beresford.

John Power and Lady Beresford are orphans raised by an atheist guardian who tries to convert them to his beliefs. Despite this, they retain their belief in life after death and make a solemn vow: the first to die will reappear to the other to prove the existence of an afterlife.

After the Earl’s death, Lady Beresford claims to see him standing beside her bed. He tells her he has just died and reminds her of their pact. He prophesies that her husband will die, she will remarry, she will have four children and she will die on her 47th birthday.

To confirm the vision, the Earl allegedly grabs her wrist, causing it to shrink and wither. She wears a black silk ribbon for the rest of her life to conceal the mark.

Lady Beresford’s husband does die as foretold, she does remarry and she does have four children. However, she does not die on her 47th birthday, as the prophecy stated.

On Lady Beresford’s 48th birthday, she celebrates with friends, including a clergyman. When she says, “I am 48 today,” the clergyman corrects her, saying she is 47. He explains he had checked her birth registry days earlier. She cries, “You have signed my death warrant!” Later that night she makes her will and dies.

The story has been recounted in multiple versions, including in Diaries of a Lady of Quality, where it is linked to further family events and a missing ring. It remains a staple in Irish ghost folklore, celebrated for its eerie accuracy and the tragic, haunting ending.

(Pictured: Portrait of Nicola Sophia Hamilton by Irish portraitist, Garret Morphy, courtesy of Howth Castle)


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Death of Charles Boyle, 3rd Viscount Dungarvan

Charles Boyle, 3rd Viscount Dungarvan, passes away intestate on October 12, 1694, in Londesborough, East Riding of Yorkshire, England, predeceasing his father and passing his titles to his eldest son.. The exact causes of his death are not specified in historical records. His death occurs while his father, Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Burlington and 2nd Earl of Cork, is still alive, meaning he never inherits the earldoms of Cork or Burlington.

As a result of Boyle’s death before his father the Irish Viscountcy of Dungarvan and the English Barony of Clifford pass to his eldest son, Charles Boyle (bef. 1669–1704), who later becomes the 3rd Earl of Cork and 2nd Earl of Burlington upon the death of his grandfather in 1698. By his mother Lady Elizabeth Clifford’s death in 1691, he has already inherited the Barony of Clifford, which then also passes to his son.

At the time of his death, Charles leaves behind six children from his two marriages:

Boyle’s death In 1694 ensures the continuation of the Boyle family legacy through his children, particularly his eldest son, who consolidates the family’s English and Irish peerages. He is buried in Londesborough later that same month.

Although Boyle has a distinguished career as a Member of Parliament and as a Fellow of the Royal Society, his early death precludes him from inheriting the earldoms. Nevertheless, through strategic marriages and succession, the Boyle family maintains their prominent position in Anglo-Irish nobility.


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Death of Henry Brooke, Novelist & Dramatist

Henry Brooke, Irish novelist and dramatist, dies in Dublin on October 10, 1783.

Brooke is born and raised at Rantavan House near Mullagh, a village in the far south of County Cavan. He later studies law at Trinity College Dublin, but embraces literature as a career.

Brooke is the son of  The Reverend William Brooke, the well-off Church of Ireland Rector of Killinkere and Mullagh within the Church of Ireland Diocese of Kilmore. He first begins his career as a poet. His now forgotten philosophical poem Universal Beauty is published in 1735, and Alexander Pope thinks its sentiments and poetry fine. He then turns dramatist by adapting extant plays, such as The Earl of Essex. He writes from the Tory point of view and becomes one of the most important figures in Augustan drama, although not for his successes. 

Brooke’s Gustavus Vasa (1739) has the distinction of being the first play banned by the Licensing Act 1737. The play concerns the liberation of Sweden from Denmark in 1521 by Riksföreståndare (Protector of the Realm or Regent) Gustav Vasa (who later becomes King Gustav I of Sweden). Sir Robert Walpole believes that the villain of the play resembles him. Further, a facetious “attack” on it is the first public writing of Samuel Johnson, whose A Complete Vindication of the Licensers of the English Stage feigns support for Walpole while it drives the censor’s argument to reductio ad absurdum.

Brooke lives in Ireland most of his life, but he spends time in London when his plays are on the stage. In politics, he is somewhat radical in arguing publicly for loosening the laws persecuting Roman Catholics in the United Kingdom. His daughter, Charlotte Brooke, is herself an important figure in the history of Irish literature, publishing Reliques of Irish Poetry (1789) and working to increase the profile of Irish language poetry.

Later, Brook’s Earl of Essex comes back to the boards in a revival. Again, Samuel Johnson offers his public support of Brooke, but when he hears the Earl saying at the end of Act II, “Who rules o’er free men must himself be free,” Johnson replies, “Who drives fat oxen must himself be fat.” Although Johnson is objecting to the misuse and overuse of “freedom” and is at that time in a vexatious debate over the American Revolutionary War (saying, “Why is it that we hear the loudest cries for liberty from the drivers of Negroes?”), Brooke is mortified by Johnson’s parody and changes the line for his Collected Works.

Brooke has a difficult life and makes a very poor living. The Licensing Act 1737 robs him of his primary avenue to making a living, for, after the Act, he is the first man banned by it. Whatever fame this lends him is made up for by his inability to get new plays performed. His greatest commercial successes come from the Earl of Essex and his two novels, The Fool of Quality (1760-1772) and Juliet Grenville (1774), which are two of the finest sentimental novels.  John Wesley is so fond of The Fool of Quality, in which Brooke declares his belief in universal salvation, that he seeks to have a copy of it given out to all new Methodist churches.

Brooke has twenty-two children. Of these, only Charlotte survives adolescence. She shepherds his Works through the press after his death.

The death of Brooke’s wife after a long illness and the loss of so many of his children, leaves Brooke’s physical and mental health increasingly unstable. His decline is evident in the last volume of The Fool of Quality and his final three-volume novel Juliet Grenville. He dies in Dublin on October 10, 1783, and is buried in his father’s churchyard in Mullagh.


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Birth of Emily FitzGerald, Duchess of Leinster

Emily FitzGerald, Duchess of Leinster, an Anglo-Irish aristocrat, is born Lady Emilia Mary Lennox in London on October 6, 1731. She is the second of the renowned Lennox sisters, and a prominent matriarch in Irish and British society, famous for her large family, political connections, and cultural influence.

Lennox is the daughter of Charles Lennox, 2nd Duke of Richmond, an illegitimate grandson of King Charles II, and Lady Sarah Cadogan. She is renowned for her beauty, vivacity, and intellectual curiosity, and is considered the most attractive and socially adept of the Lennox sisters. She is presented at court at the age of thirteen and becomes engaged to James FitzGerald, 20th Earl of Kildare, in 1745.

Lennox marries James FitzGerald on February 7, 1747, at Richmond House, London. The couple moves to Ireland, residing at Leinster House and Carton House. Their marriage, despite his infidelities, is reportedly affectionate. Over 25 years, she gives birth to nineteen children, ten of whom survive to adulthood. Notable children include William FitzGerald, 2nd Duke of Leinster, Lord Edward Fitzgerald, and Lord Henry FitzGerald.

James FitzGerald becomes Marquess of Kildare and then Duke of Leinster in recognition of his political influence. The couple’s financial arrangements are generous, leaving FitzGerald a substantial jointure and properties, which later strains the resources of her surviving children.

After the Duke of Leinster’s death in 1773, FitzGerald marries her children’s tutor, William Ogilvie, on August 26, 1774, having already begun an affair. Ogilvie is nine years her junior and the likely biological father of her youngest son from her first marriage. She and Ogilvie have three additional children together, two of whom survive into adulthood. She spends time in France and Ireland before eventually settling in London to oversee her daughters’ marriages and engage in social affairs.

FitzGerald is a keen reader, politicized, and culturally active. She has a strong interest in literature, politics, and Enlightenment ideas, influenced by thinkers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau. She actively manages her estates and interiors, notably Carton House and its gardens, and pursues educational and outdoor activities for her children, demonstrating innovation in child-rearing and estate management.

FitzGerald is deeply affectionate and attentive to her children, particularly Lord Edward FitzGerald, a key figure in the Irish republican movement. She is involved in mourning and supporting her children, enduring the deaths of fourteen of her 22 children across both marriages. She also navigates complex social and financial challenges, ensuring her families’ estates and alliances endure despite societal pressures.

FitzGerald dies at Grosvenor Square, London, on March 27, 1814, and is buried in the family vault at Chichester Cathedral.

FitzGerald’s life and correspondence exemplify the culture, politics, and familial dynamics of eighteenth-century Anglo-Irish aristocracy. She has been depicted in numerous portraits by artists including Sir Joshua Reynolds, Allan Ramsay (pictured above), and Arthur Devis. Her story, and that of the Lennox sisters, is popularized in Stella Tillyard’s 1994 book Aristocrats and the six-part BBC/PBS television series adapted in 1999, highlighting her role in history, society, and culture.

In summary, Emily FitzGerald, Duchess of Leinster, is remembered as a central figure of aristocratic Ireland and Britain, a mother to a large and influential family, and a socially and politically engaged noblewoman whose life bridged familial devotion, political awareness, and cultural sophistication.


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The Execution of Matthew Tone

Matthew Tone, brother of Society of United Irishmen leader Theobald Wolfe Tone, is executed on September 29, 1798, at Arbour Hill Prison in Dublin after being captured at the Battle of Ballinamuck during the Irish Rebellion of 1798.

Tone is a French Army officer serving under General Jean Joseph Amable Humbert in the Irish expedition of 1798. He leaves Ireland for France in 1794, later moves to the United States, and rejoins Humbert in Paris in November 1797. At Ballinamuck, the French-led Irish forces are decisively defeated by British troops. Disguised as a peasant, he is captured on September 8, 1798.

Tone is imprisoned in the Provost prison at Dublin barracks and put on trial before a court-martial on September 21, 24 and 26, 1798. In his defence, he claims he had left Ireland before war was declared, that his imprisonment in France proved his innocence, and that he had tried to prevent the rebels from committing acts of revenge and plunder. He is, however, found guilty of high treason.

On September 29, 1798, Tone is hanged at Arbour Hill Prison and buried at Bodenstown Graveyard, County Kildare. He is unmarried but has a daughter raised by his sister Margaret.

Tone is one of roughly 200 Irish prisoners hanged after the Battle of Ballinamuck, alongside other United Irishmen and French sympathisers. The battle marks a turning point in the Irish Rebellion of 1798, leading to the repatriation of most French soldiers but the summary execution of many Irish insurgents.

In summary, Matthew Tone’s execution on September 29, 1798, is a direct consequence of his role in the French-led Irish expedition, his capture at the Battle of Ballinamuck, and the British government’s harsh response to the defeat, which sees widespread executions of captured rebels.


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Francis Annesley Expelled from the Irish House of Commons

Francis Annesley, an Irish lawyer and politician of Ulster Protestant descent, is expelled from the Irish House of Commons on September 28, 1703, following his role in the “Report of the Commissioners,” a parliamentary inquiry into the state of Ireland and its affairs. This expulsion marks the end of his first term as MP for Downpatrick, a position he has held since 1695.

Annesley is a prominent figure in Irish politics during the late 1690s. Initially aligned with the Whig faction, he later moves closer to Tory interests, particularly in his opposition to Catholic influence and the growing presence of Scottish Presbyterians in Ulster. His political stance and actions in the Irish Parliament draw criticism from certain factions.

The “Report of the Commissioners” is a formal parliamentary document produced by a committee tasked with examining Ireland’s governance, economic conditions, and political tensions. Annesley’s involvement in drafting or presenting parts of this report is seen by some as politically damaging or controversial. The exact nature of his contribution is not fully detailed in surviving records, but it is sufficient to trigger his expulsion.

The early 1700s in Ireland are marked by ongoing sectarian tensions between Protestants and Catholics, political maneuvering between Whig and Tory factions in the Irish Parliament and economic hardship and poor governance conditions, which are themes in the commissioners’ report.

Annesley’s expulsion reflects the sensitivity of political discourse in Ireland at the time, where even well-intentioned inquiries can be used to target opponents.

Following his expulsion, Annesley continues his political career in England, being returned as MP for Preston in 1705 and later for Westbury. He remains active in Parliament until 1734, when he does not stand for re-election in the 1734 British general election.

In summary, on September 28, 1703, Francis Annesley is expelled from the Irish House of Commons for his part in the “Report of the Commissioners,” a move that underscores the political risks of engaging in sensitive parliamentary inquiries during a volatile period in Irish history.


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Lord Cornwallis Advances from Tuam to Launch Attack on Castlebar

On September 4, 1798, Lord Charles Cornwallis advances from Tuam in County Galway with the intention of launching an attack on Castlebar, County Mayo — a town that had just been the site of a major Franco–United Irishmen victory just a week earlier.

The Battle of Castlebar takes place on August 27, 1798. A combined force of about 800 French troops under General Jean Joseph Amable Humbert and 2,000 United Irishmen rebels defeat a much larger British Crown force of 3,000 to 5,000 men led by General Gerard Lake. The French, though exhausted from long marches, exploit the disorganisation of Lake’s militia-heavy army, routing it in what becomes known as the “Castlebar Races” or “Races of Castlebar.” The British suffer heavy casualties — around 400 killed or wounded and 800 captured, while the French lose about 200 to 220.

The victory at Castlebar is a significant boost to the rebels, but it also alarms the British government. Cornwallis, commanding the Crown forces in the west, is tasked with reasserting control and preventing further advances into Ulster. By September 4, he has moved from Tuam to threaten Castlebar, aiming to recapture the town and disrupt Humbert’s plans to push north into County Sligo and beyond.

Anticipating Cornwallis’s move, Humbert evacuates Castlebar with his remaining troops — roughly 800 French soldiers and 1,000 Irish insurgents — and marches north into County Sligo. His objective is to ignite further rebellion in Ulster, continuing the momentum of the short-lived “Republic of Connacht.” This evacuation leaves the town vulnerable to British reoccupation.

While Humbert’s force is retreating, fresh risings broke out in counties Longford and Westmeath, showing the insurrection’s reach. However, these uprisings are ultimately suppressed, and the British, under commanders like Cornwallis, work to mop up rebel strongholds across Ireland.

In summary, on September 4, 1798, Cornwallis’s advance from Tuam is a direct response to the rebel victory at Castlebar, aiming to regain a key rebel-held town and halt Humbert’s northern push. The move reflects the British strategy of localized offensives to counter the momentum of the Irish Rebellion of 1798.

(Pictured: Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis)